DISCUSSION STARTER 6The Changing Agenda of WomenThis Discussion Starter on The Changing Agenda of Women is part of a broad, inclusive, nation-wide discussion about a better way for Australia than today's market-driven degrading of citizens' rights and the public good. This discussion process will culminate in a major national conference in Sydney on July 14-15, 2001. This and other Discussion Starters aim to develop ideas for and interest in the conference, to ensure the most informed and productive level of discussion possible within our resources.
In either case, your feedback on this topic into the discussion process is vital to develop the agenda for the July 2001 conference.
According to the United Nations, women make up 70% of the world's 1.3 billion people living in poverty, 65% of the world's refugees and two thirds of the world's illiterates. They are two thirds of the exploited informal work force, head almost a third of households, own just one percent of the world's resources and earn one tenth of the world's income. Women are barely represented in economic and political decision making, making up only 10% of parliamentary representatives worldwide. (Community Aid Abroad 1999) This paper addresses some relevant issues to women in society, it does not cover all feminist positions on these issues. The paper is not aimed specifically at men or at women, it may be used as a basis to discussion for groups or individuals. When there is use of the term 'woman' it is important to bear in mind that there are differences between women, for example, on the basis of class, race and ethnicity. The terms sex and gender are not to be taken as meaning the same thing. Gender relates to the social differences between men and women, character traits that arise from social and cultural forces, not natural ones. An analysis of gender should not just be confined to areas considered to be women's experiences, but to all of society. Although feminists take different positions on patriarchy, it can be literally defined as 'rule of the father' - patriarchy is a system of power. In Australia, the modern women's movement arose in close connection to campaigns by women in industry for a better deal on many fronts. We must acknowledge and defend the victories of the women's movement, and we must also ask how can we further advance the struggle for women's rights. Source: Curthoys (1988) For and Against Feminism: A personal Journey into Feminist Theory and History Allen and Unwin, Sydney.
Marilyn Lake has provided a brief overview of the women's movement in Australia:
The Nuclear Family
Feminist strategies were aimed at helping women 'escape' the family, for example, birthcontrol, childcare provision and equal opportunity at work. The trend in increasing levels of divorce (40% of marriages end in divorce) and decreasing marriage levels (between 1972-94 the percentage of women married by 25yrs old fell from 85% to 47%) have been matched by a growing trend from neo-liberals and conservatives to push the 'pro family' line. Despite gains feminists have made in highlighting the inequalities in the nuclear family, a problem still remains with the 'normality' of heterosexuality, all other groupings and relationships are judged against this ideal and found as lacking or deviant. Feminists tackling the nuclear family issue have acknowledged the importance of extended families to Aboriginal people and the collective base of families from non-Anglo cultures.
Source:
Discussion Questions:
Childcare
Uncertainty surrounded government funding after the dismissal of the Whitlam government in 1975. Under the Fraser government (1975-83) funding was considerably cut. In 1991 under the Labor government there was a shift toward 'private for profit' childcare centres. This was meet with fierce opposition from the community and feminists organisations. This move towards privatisation raises concerns over the quality of childcare and concern over profit making from a public need. The ideal for community based, non-profit childcare centres was slowly being lost under the Labor government. Today under the Howard government's cuts to public spending, the ideal has been placed firmly out of reach. Source: D.Brennan Childcare in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Discussion Questions:
Domestic Labour
Janeen Baxter identifies three major phases in feminist ideas about domestic labour:
Source: J.Baxter Domestic Labour in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Discussion Questions:
Reproductive Rights, Technology, Abortion and Contraception
Women's right to choose has been the foundation of many feminist campaigns. Factored into these campaigns is the fact that Aboriginal women, non Anglo women and women from industrialising nations are still fighting for many rights that Anglo Australian women take for granted. By 1980 fertility was seen as controllable for most women, there was acceptance for safe abortion and effective contraception, but still no strong vision for women's liberation. Some feminists felt that the fertility debate had to extend beyond healthcare issues and into the wider realm of sexuality. They wished to challenge cultural definitions of women as reproductive agents and felt that this could not be done simply on medical and healthcare grounds. With growing technological advances and the increased role of medical science, the fertility debate has taken on a new shape. IVF, for example, has produced differing feminist opinions and encompasses many ethical and legal issues. Many feminists refuse to ignore the social and political context of these new technologies. They argue that class dimensions and male dominance in the medical profession are all too apparent. IVF highlights the debates concerning access. While some white middle class mothers can use these measures to control their fertility, it is difficult for other women to do so. This is especially true now that the Howard government has proposed to restrict IVF from gay couples and single parents. Abortion in Australia is available but not legal anywhere except in South Australia. Feminist activists have fought long campaigns to repeal abortion laws, arguing again that women need to control their fertility, but have not yet met success. A major victory did occur in 1970?? when the House of Representatives defeated a private members motion to deny medical benefits for abortion. The Australia Medical Association supported opposition to this motion. Source: R.Albury Reproductive Rights and Technology in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Discussion Questions:
Welfare
Historically this dates back to the Harvester Arbitration Case in 1907 which established a 'family wage' that was sufficient for a man to support a wife and three children on. The Arbitration Court set women's wages at 54% of the male rate. This clearly placed women in a secondary position to men and established a male breadwinner model of wages and welfare. Since this time some steps have been taken toward greater equality in welfare:
Under the Howard government the welfare state has been gradually eroded and there have been strong attempts to reinforce nuclear family values. Source: B.Cass and D.Mitchell Social Security in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Discussion Questions:
Women and Work Gender is a major variable determining labour market placement. In Australia it has led to the most sex segregated labour market in the industrial world. Women's disadvantage in the labour market cannot be explained just by looking at the structure of the labour market itself, it must be placed in a broader social context. The terms of the labour market are dictated by economic, cultural and political agendas making the effects felt by women vastly different as we cross boundaries of class, race and ethnicity. There are many issues embodied in 'women and work', for example, access to employment opportunities, equal pay, working conditions that recognise women's responsibilities at home, sexual harassment, undervalued domestic labour, the double burden of domestic labour and paid labour and under representation in unions. In the impoverished countries the issues are even sharper- poor working conditions, severely underpaid work and working outside the formal sector. In Australia in 1999 women made up 43% of the labour force. 47% of female employees work full time compared to 87% of male employees that work full time. 44% of females work part time compared to 13% of males that work part time. Women earn 87.5% of full time average earnings, which drops to 65% when part time earnings are added in. There has been a huge increase in the number of women workers since the 1960s and a greater equality in wages. Factors contributing to this include increased access to contraception, as well as employer demands for more labour as the economy expanded. Despite this growth in the female participation rate, inequality still exists in the market place. Women often work in part time, casual or other forms of precarious employment and they work in sectors that have historically low union membership. Women earn lower wages than men do and have fewer hours of paid work. Sex stereotyping of jobs and tasks leads to designation of women's jobs as unskilled and male 'breadwinner' ideologies means women workers are undervalued as wage earners. Women's work within the home is also responsible for their subordinate position in the labour market. Women's work in some industries often mirrors this domestic work which further adds to the stigmatisation of women's work as 'unskilled'. Male dominance in the paid labour force has made it difficult for women to achieve equal rights as such rights are usually attained through male dominated institutions such as unions, courts and legislation. Over the last few decades in Australia some significant gains have been made.
Feminists have organised women in unions and pushed for greater representation within union ranks. The focus has been on issues such as equal pay, maternity and paternity leave. Unfortunately just as women were beginning to use existing structures to their advantage, deregulation of the labour market contributed to declining rates of union participation and decreased influence of unions, and weakened the Arbitration Commission in its centralised wage fixing role. Women tend to work in sectors of the economy that are difficult to unionise, and this problem is intensified in a deregulated and casualised workforce. Attacks on unionism under the Howard government and cuts to public spending means women still don't have adequate access to paid maternity and paternity leave, or publicly funded childcare. Unions today recognise the need to make themselves more appealing and accessible to women, and to encourage much higher participation of women in leadership positions. The Australian Council of Trade unions now has its second woman President, Sharon Burrow, following Jennie George.
Sources:
Discussion Questions:
Women and Development
There has been recognition of the poverty faced by peoples in these countries yet development programs often fail because of the gender bias. Gender bias can thus be seen as a primary cause of poverty. Economic development programs often rest on the assumption that economic growth is gender neutral, and ignores the devastating 'gender gaps' that exist in the distribution of wealth and resources to women in the industrialising world. Women in the industrialising world provide crucial economic support to their families by earning income in agriculture, in formal and informal labour markets and in international industries. In most countries women work longer hours than men and this extra work is rarely offset by a reduction in duties at home. In industrialising countries women work an average of 12 - 18 hrs a day producing food, managing resources, and working in paid and unpaid activities. Men work an average of 8 - 12hrs a day. Women are often the main 'breadwinners'. As in the industrialised world, women in the industrialising world face the low valuation of the work they perform in the non-wage economy. When this is coupled with a lack of access to resources women often find themselves trapped in a cycle of poverty. Outside of subsistence economies there has been a growing number of women working in urban employment. However, due to discrimination and domestic responsibilities, women often end up working in the 'informal' sector. This sector is characterised by traditional labour intensive practices, low, irregular earnings, no unionisation or social security and no paid maternity leave. Informal employment often operates in the margins of the law. Trends in corporate globalisation have also led to the increasing establishment of 'free trade zones'. Multinational companies do not have to meet any recommended international standards on human rights or labour rights. Most of the workers employed are young single women who are more vulnerable. In some cases the State and multinationals come to agreements whereby they can prohibit any forms of unionism or strikes. Feminists in the industrial world acknowledge that they cannot fully understand the situation of women in the industrialising world. They recognise that there are differences in women's conditions on account of race, class and ethnicity, and attempt to show solidarity and support. Examples of this include the Nike campaign to improve the conditions of Nike factory workers in Asia, and the Fairwear campaign against sweatshop for clothing manufactured in Australia and overseas. Source: J.Jacobson (1992) Worldwatch Paper 110 Gender Bias: Roadblock to Sustainable Develop Discussion Questions:
Women and Violence
Women have suffered from violence caused by men for an extensive period of time, including rape, sexual abuse, domestic violence, verbal abuse, spousal homicide and stalking. Massive feminist campaigns have existed around violence since the 1970s. Increased awareness about the levels of domestic violence and the fact that there was no safety refuges for victims was the catalyst for strong domestic violence campaigns in the same period. These campaigns resulted in the establishment of the first women's refuge in Australia in 1974 - Elsie Women's Refuge. In the 1980s child sexual abuse emerged as a serious issue. Feminists took this on board along with domestic violence and rape. Research into child abuse revealed startling rates of assault, a survey in 1988 found that 1 in 4 girls were a victim of sexual abuse by a man 5 years their senior. Statistics of violence against women are often restricted on the basis of women's unwillingness to disclose information and the method of inquiry. Reporting of violence is often restricted on the basis of women feeling the incident is too trivial, they feel they will not be believed, or they are embarrassed at disclosing the details. Reporting is also affected by social attitudes which foster guilt in the victim. Many feminists argue that institutions such as the legal system uphold and even reinforce violence against women. The legal system is often criticised for its inability to prevent the crimes or to treat the issues seriously. The issues of prostitution and pornography also arise in reference to violence and women. Radical feminists view all prostitution as 'forced' and a gross violation of human rights. It is seen as a sexual exploitation and even sexual slavery. They also view pornography as the ultimate expression of misogyny that produced images both violent and sexist. Robin Morgan encapsulated this view of pornography as subordination that leads to violence with the slogan 'pornography is the theory, rape is the practice'. This also raises the connection between media and violence against women. The exploitation of women in the media goes beyond pornography. The realm of media represents, once again, a male form of supremacy that attempts to place women in an inferior position. The pertinent issue with women, media and pornography remains who owns the media and pornography and who is benefiting? The objectification and discrimination of women in media must be understood in a broader social and economic context that rests on patriarchal grounds, and values profit making above all else. Source: G.Mason Violence in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Discussion Questions:
Globalisation and Women
The intensification of globalisation is threatening women's rights around the globe and feminists face one of their biggest challenges as they learn to embrace the politics of difference. Feminism had often been accused of being white, middle class and Western and as globalisation takes hold feminists need to address these accusations. Corporate globalisation has had disproportionate effects for women. The international division of labour has exaberated inequalities between men and women. This has clearly contributed to the increasing feminisation of poverty. With women making up 70% of the world's poor and 65% of refugees. As multinationals go global in their pursuit of increased profit, many women find that they are the source of a cheap, flexible labour supply. This is especially true for women in industrialising countries and for migrant women in industrial countries. Women in the industrialising world become subject to massive companies attempting to cut labour costs through labour market deregulation, many women work in factories and sweatshops where they suffer low wages, poor working conditions, occupational segregation and sexual harassment from employers. In Australia many migrant women and non-Anglo women work as outworkers where exploitation is equally high, and many women find themselves working 12-18 hour days, 7 days a week for only 1/3 the rate of pay. As the power of multinationals grows, the power of national states is redirected. A clear shift away from social rights towards competition, efficiency and productivity becomes apparent as the mentality of corporate globalisation takes over. Women are especially hard hit as nation states cut back on public spending, leaving women with decreased access to education, health and childcare. Although under corporate globalisation capital moves more freely than anything else, women have still managed to organise and link up across the globe. There has been a number of global women's conferences as well as the formation of women's networks. One of the many challenges for feminist under corporate globalisation will be defending the gains they have made so far and moving forward in the face of deregulation and cuts to public spending and 'backlash'. Source: J.J.Pettman Transnational Feminisms in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Discussion Questions:
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women
Marcia Langton and Kirsten Barry have outlined a brief history of the situation for Aboriginal women from colonial times up until the present, to reveal that the history and experiences of Aboriginal women are markedly different to those of white Australian women. Aboriginal women were often the primary 'breadwinners' for their families, they provided childcare, domestic labour, sexual partners and undertook pastoral and agricultural labour. In the 1880s Aboriginal women were often employed as domestic servants and 'prostitutes' (the tribal husband was often compensated for this exchange, and in Aboriginal culture such exchanges were not necessarily exploitative). In the 1840s Aboriginal women worked as much as Aboriginal men, and often for the same rates of (minimal) pay. They worked as nannies and domestic servants for white people, and also worked in industries dominated by men such as cattle herding and stockwork. Between the 1900s and the 1970s the removal of Aboriginal children from their families occurred. Aboriginal girls were often placed in institutions where they were to be trained as domestic labour and taught to 'assimilate' with white Australia. In this period 10-30% of indigenous children were forcibly removed from their homes, they were often then enslaved and physically and sexually abused. In the 1920s the Aboriginal protest movement began in which Aboriginal women were not just instrumental, they were leaders. They exposed the poor conditions of the institutions that housed many indigenous people such as poor food, sexual abuse and unsanitary conditions. In the 1950s and 1960s the fight for land rights began and again many Aboriginal women were instrumental. It was Aboriginal women who formed the Aboriginal - Australian Fellowship that eventually led to the Federal Council of Advancement for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Aboriginal women look after their land and their people. Aboriginal women are leaders in community and political life. (Source: M. Langton and K.Barry Aboriginal Women and Economic Ingenuity in B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.) In Australia today Aboriginal women suffer intense discrimination and inequality, and the effect this has on Aboriginal women is outlined by ATSIC in a Statistical Profile of Aboriginal Women and Torres Strait Islander Women, June 2000. Health
Discussion Questions:
Chronology - Women's achievements in Australia
Source : B.Caine (1998) (ed) Australian Feminism - a companion, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. |